n rise of individualism as communal city-states are replaced by empires
n practical philosophy emerges to show people how to personally live a good life and find tranquillity
n focus on ethics; less interest in metaphysics and cosmology
n materialism (matter alone exists; nothing spiritual) emerges
n loss of focus on the spiritual dimension leads to the dying of philosophy
n Stoics (early - Zeno, Cleanthes; late - Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius)
n reduce all reality to matter (a cosmic fire), but still identify an active “spiritual” force in the material world, called Nature or Reason
n ethics - man should control his soul by reason and keep it tranquil
n man should assent to the will of fate / Nature, which determines all things
n man should not be disturbed by external things, such as loss of wealth or death of a loved one, because they cannot harm the soul
n thus, the passions and emotions should be suppressed
n Epicureans (Epicurus)
n strong materialists - the world is composed of atoms constantly re-arranging
n ethics - seek pleasure, avoid pain (hedonism); pleasure the end (goal) of life
n sensible pleasure creates restlessness; intellectual pleasure is better
n Skeptics (Pyrrho)
n “I know nothing” - reach tranquillity by suspending all judgments
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